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On January 10, 1916, the last paper issue of 2 pesos was made by the moribund Conventionist government. It was issued at Cuernavaca, Morelos. By this time the Conventionists consisted only of elements of Zapata’s Liberating Army of the South. The remainder of their armed forces had all joined the Carrancistas, or reverted to local rebellions against the Carranza government. |
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On January 13, 1916, General Victoriano Huerta died at Fort Bliss, Texas, where he was in custody for violation of U. S. neutrality laws. Not many mourned the passing of the usurper. Although the major battles were over, the bloodshed was not. When Villa learned that the U. S. had allowed Carranza’s troops to move by rail across U. S. territory to reinforce Calles at Agua Prieta, he felt betrayed and vowed revenge. For the first time, U. S. citizens became targets for the Villistas. Continuing to resist Carranza by a return to guerrilla activity, Villa turned his attention to the little town of Columbus, New Mexico, on March 9, 1916. The attack resulted in the famous “Punitive Expedition” of 1916-1917, led by General John. J. “Blackjack” Pershing.
In May 1916, Carranza supplemented his issue of notes with denominations of 1 and 2 pesos. All are dated May 1, 1916. He called them indomables. |
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This final series of the Carranza government was a futile attempt to retain public acceptance of paper money, but the trend away from paper had begun in January 1916 and was gaining momentum daily. Pegged at 20 gold centavos per peso in June 1916, by December they were worthless. Carranza’s dream of a “national” currency was dead. Mexicans refused to accept any paper, and as if by magic, the hoarded coinage of the last three years began to reappear and become the only legal tender of the country.
The only other significant paper issue of 1916 was the paper of the State of Yucatan. On May 9, 1916, The Regulatory Commission of the Henequen Market issued Cashier’s Bonds in denominations of 20 and 100 pesos. These banknote-like bonds passed as currency and are now extremely rare. On May 22, the General Treasury of the State of Yucatan issued notes in denominations of 5 and 10 pesos. On the following day it issued notes in denominations of 50 Centavos, 1 and 2 pesos. Their acceptance was limited as Yucatan also joined the trend to “hard” money. An example is shown on the following page. |
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While the Constitutionalist Army chased Villa and the Yankee army around northern Mexico, they also were faced with the Conventionist Army (almost all of which were elements of Zapata’s army) in the center, and the secessionist Oaxacans in the south. By early summer, the Oaxacan rebellion was put down, and the Constitutionalists could concentrate on the zapatistas. It became a see-saw affair with Zapata occupying Mexico City, then giving it up, only to re-occupy it days later. On August 1, 1916, the Conventionist Army under Zapata gave up the capital for the last time, but continued to fight as guerrillas as the Constitutionalists extended their occupation of central and southern Mexico. |
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In spite of all the fighting and other disruptions, a Constitutional Congress was convened on December 2, 1916, and by January 31, 1917, Mexico had a modern and liberal constitution. With Villa and Zapata still raiding the countryside, First Chief Carranza was elected President of the Republic and sworn in on May 1st.
The last revolutionary issue came in 1917 from the Zapatista-controlled towns of Cacahuatepec and Cacalotepec in the State of Guerrero. Still holding out in the hinterlands of central Mexico, the Zapatistas issued coins at the two little towns. The coins shown below are from the Cacahuatepec issue which included denominations of 5, 20, and 50 centavos and 1 peso. The silver 20 centavos and 1 peso are rare. The issue of Cacalotepec was a 20 centavos in silver, also rare. |
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Morelos 10 centavos |
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Morelos 50 centavos |
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Tenancingo 10 centavos |
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5 centavos |
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50 centavos |
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In Mexico City, First Chief Venustiano Carranza designed and ordered the issue of a new 20 pesos gold piece. The coin would show the resurgence of the Mexican economy under the Constitutionalist regime. |
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The end of the issue of revolutionary money did not signal the end of the revolution. In spite of a new constitution and a new president, rebellions, assassinations and executions continued at a brisk pace. President Carranza had learned the lesson that Francisco I. Madero had ignored — allowing political opponents who were capable of armed rebellion to continue to live was like walking around with a lighted stick of dynamite in your pocket. Carranza had no reluctance about eliminating such threats.
The prime example of Carranza’s willingness to eliminated the competition is the manner in which General Emiliano Zapata was “neutralized”. Zapata was enticed by a turncoat to attend a meeting at Chinameca, Morelos. As he approached the hacienda, what appeared to be an honor guard was arrayed before him. When he was within range, the “honor guard” opened fire, killing him instantly. Carranza had rid himself of Zapata, but catching Pancho Villa proved impossible.
As 1920 began, the constitutionally mandated presidential term of Venustiano Carranza was coming to an end. When General Alvaro Obregón declared as a candidate for president, Carranza attempted to have him apprehended. Obregón escaped arrest, and the generals of Sonora, in support of Obregón, rebelled against the Carranza. It was not hard to convince the cabecillas of Mexico that the arrogant old First Chief was acting exactly as Díaz had toward Madero. By the time that Carranza realized he had made a fatal mistake, it was too late to rectify it. He left Mexico City and headed, once again, for Veracruz. This time he did not make it. On May 20, 1920, he was assassinated in the mountains between Mexico City and Veracruz.
Sonoran General Adolfo de la Huerta was named Provisional President days after Carranza’s murder. A long-time friend and sympathizer of Francisco Villa, he immediately opened negotiations with Villa to lay down his arms and retire. The negotiations were successful and Villa withdrew from military and political life. |
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Carranza Victorious! |
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During 1916, only five coins were issued by revolutionary forces – all Zapatista. The town of Tenancingo, Mexico, issued a copper 10 centavos. The State of Morelos, issued a copper 10 centavos; a copper 50 centavos; a silver peso; and a copper peso. The Morelos peso coins are rare. |
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Zapata was dead, Carranza was dead, and Villa was tamed. Peace had returned to Mexico! Well, not quite. Villa, though retired, still held a great deal of influence among the people of northern Mexico, and was viewed as a constant political threat, even though he had kept his word not to re-enter the political scene. On July 20, 1923, Pancho Villa was assassinated in the city of Hidalgo del Parral, Chihuahua. There is no direct evidence that Alvaro Obregón was involved in the planning or the execution of the assassination, but many Mexican citizens believed that he was behind it.
In 1921, Obregón succeeded de la Huerta in the presidency. In 1923, ex-president de la Huerta led a revolt against Obregón in the north of Mexico. It was suppressed without mercy, and many of the old revolutionary generals were assassinated or captured and executed.
Since the Mexican Constitution forbade presidential re-election, Obregón left office as required in October 1924. He was succeeded by Plutarco Elías Calles, the general who had destroyed Villa’s Division del Norte in 1915. Calles proved to be an effective and popular president. Even so, 1927 saw the renewal of rebellion in the form of a radical Christian faction called the Cristeros. Appalled at the Mexican government’s suppression of the Catholic Church, these revolutionaries sought to return the church to it former place of power and influence.
In spite of the on-going hostilities, elections were held on time and ex-president Alvaro Obregón won a second non-consecutive term. In Mexico City, awaiting his inauguration, Obregón was assassinated on July 17,1928, by a young Cristero.
Rebellions would dog Mexico’s history up to the present day, but the constitution would hold, and no president would be replaced by a “man on a white horse”. |